Alle Publikationen
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2018
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(2018): The influence of effective communication, perceived respect and willingness to collaborate on nurses' perceptions of nurse-physician collaboration in China. In: Applied nursing research: ANR 41, S. 73-79. DOI: 10.1016/j.apnr.2018.04.005
DOI: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29853219 Abstract: BACKGROUND Nurse-physician collaboration is a critical prerequisite for high-quality care. Previous researchers have addressed multiple factors that influence collaboration. However, little of this research has explored the influence of interactional factors on nurses' perception of nurse-physician collaboration in China. AIMS To examine the influence of interactional factors (effective communication, perceived respect and willingness to collaborate) on nurses' perception of nurse-physician collaboration. METHODS A cross-sectional survey of 971 registered nurses in nine hospitals was conducted. An author-designed interactional factor questionnaire and the Nurse-Physician Collaboration Scale were used to collect data. Multiple regression analysis was used. RESULTS Nurse-physician collaboration was identified as at a moderate level (mean = 3.93 ± 0.68). Interactional factors (effective communication, perceived respect and willingness to collaborate) were identified as relatively moderate to high (mean = 4.03 ± 0.68, mean = 3.87 ± 0.75, mean = 4.50 ± 0.59, respectively). The results showed that effective communication, perceived respect and willingness to collaborate explained 57.3% of the variance in nurses' perception of nurse-physician collaboration (Adjusted R2 = 0.573, F = 435.563, P < 0.001). Perceived respect (β = 0.378) was the strongest factor relevant to nurses' perception of nurse-physician collaboration, second was effective communication (β = 0.315), and the weakest factor among these three factors was willingness to collaborate (β = 0.160). CONCLUSION Nurses' perceptions of collaboration were relatively positive, mainly in Sharing of patient information; however, improvements need to be made regarding Joint participation in the cure/care decision-making process. Effective communication, perceived respect and willingness to collaborate significantly affect nurses' perception of nurse-physician collaboration, with perceived respect having greater explanatory power among the three interactional factors. It is necessary for hospital managers to develop strategies to build professional respect for nurses, facilitate effective nurse-physician communication and improve nurses' willingness to collaborate.
2017
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(2017): Social distance influences the outcome evaluation of cooperation and conflict. Evidence from event-related potentials. In: Neuroscience letters 647, S. 78-84. DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2017.03.018
DOI: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28315726 Abstract: Previous research shows that social distance plays an important role in promoting cooperation and that subtle cues that reduce social distance increase the tendency to cooperate. However, it is unclear how social distance influences our outcome evaluation of cooperative and conflict feedback. The present study investigated the influence of social distance on cooperative and conflict behavior and the evaluation process of the cooperative and conflict outcomes, using the event-related potentials (ERPs) technique. We recorded ERPs from 14 normal adults playing a social game task against a friend and a stranger. The results showed that the FRN (Feedback Related Negativity) and P300 were affected by the opponent's choice to cooperate or aggress; however, only the P300 was affected by social distance. Specifically, when the opponent chose to cooperate, the feedback elicited a smaller FRN and a larger P300 amplitude; and compared with playing against friends, the P300 had a larger amplitude when participants gaming with strangers. Our results indicate that at the early stage of the evaluation of cooperation and conflict outcomes, individuals may initially and quickly encode the valence of outcomes, judging whether an outcome is consistent with their expectations. However, at the late stage, which involves a top-down cognitive appraisal process, some social factors, such as social distance, may moderate processing of attention resource allocation of feedback about outcomes, and of higher-level motivation/affective appraisal. zitiert von 1
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(2017): Locally noisy autonomous agents improve global human coordination in network experiments. In: Nature 545 (7654), S. 370-374. DOI: 10.1038/nature22332
DOI: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5912653 Abstract: Coordination in groups faces a sub-optimization problem and theory suggests that some randomness may help to achieve global optima. Here we performed experiments involving a networked colour coordination game in which groups of humans interacted with autonomous software agents (known as bots). Subjects (n = 4,000) were embedded in networks (n = 230) of 20 nodes, to which we sometimes added 3 bots. The bots were programmed with varying levels of behavioural randomness and different geodesic locations. We show that bots acting with small levels of random noise and placed in central locations meaningfully improve the collective performance of human groups, accelerating the median solution time by 55.6%. This is especially the case when the coordination problem is hard. Behavioural randomness worked not only by making the task of humans to whom the bots were connected easier, but also by affecting the gameplay of the humans among themselves and hence creating further cascades of benefit in global coordination in these heterogeneous systems.
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(2017): Understanding the influence of power and empathic perspective-taking on collaborative natural resource management. In: Journal of environmental management 199, S. 201-210. DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.05.030
DOI: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28544926 Abstract: Public engagement in collaborative natural resource management necessitates shared understanding and collaboration. Empathic perspective-taking is a critical facilitator of shared understanding and positive social interactions, such as collaboration. Yet there is currently little understanding about how to reliably generate empathic perspective-taking and collaboration, particularly in situations involving the unequal distribution of environmental resources or power. Here we examine how experiencing the loss or gain of social power influenced empathic perspective-taking and behavior within a computer-mediated scenario. Participants (n = 180) were randomly assigned to each condition: high resources, low resources, lose resources, gain resources. Contrary to our expectations, participants in the perspective-taking condition, specifically those who lost resources, also lost perspective taking and exhibited egoistic behavior. This finding suggests that resource control within the collaborative process is a key contextual variable that influences perspective-taking and collaborative behavior. Moreover, the observed relationship between perspective-taking and egoistic behavior within a collaborative resource sharing exercise suggests that when resource control or access is unequal, interventions to promote perspective-taking deserve careful consideration. Highlights •The collaborative scenario shifted players' perspective taking and collaborative behavior. •Loss of resources, control, or power reduces perspective taking. •Loss of resources, control, or power increases selfish behavior. •Perspective-taking was a significant predictor of collaborative behavior. •A modified framework for collaborative governance is proposed.
2016
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(2016): Gene-culture interaction and the evolution of the human sense of fairness. In: Scientific reports 6. DOI: 10.1038/srep32483
DOI: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27562008 Abstract: How Darwinian evolution would produce creatures with the proclivity of Darwinian generosity, most of them voluntarily giving up the immediate benefit for themselves or their genes, remains a puzzle. This study targets a problem, the origin of human sense of fairness, and uses fairness-related genes and the social manipulation of Darwinian generosity as the key variables underlying the human sense of fairness, inequity aversion, as well as their relationships within cooperation, and the anticipation foresight of the way relationships are affected by resource division, given the assumption of randomly matched partners. Here we suggest a model in which phenotype will gradually converge towards the perfect sense of fairness along with the prospect of cooperation. Later, the sense of fairness will decrease but it is never extinct. Where social manipulation of Darwinian generosity overshadows genetics, the sense of fairness could be acute to the degree of social manipulation. Above all, there still exists a threshold in the degree of social manipulation, beyond which altruism dominates selfishness in human cooperation. Finally, we propose three new directions toward more realistic scenarios stimulated by recent development of the synergy between statistical physics, network science and evolutionary game theory.
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(2016): Young Children See a Single Action and Infer a Social Norm. In: Psychological science 27 (10), S. 1360-1370. DOI: 10.1177/0956797616661182
DOI: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27634004 Abstract: Human social life depends heavily on social norms that prescribe and proscribe specific actions. Typically, young children learn social norms from adult instruction. In the work reported here, we showed that this is not the whole story: Three-year-old children are promiscuous normativists. In other words, they spontaneously inferred the presence of social norms even when an adult had done nothing to indicate such a norm in either language or behavior. And children of this age even went so far as to enforce these self-inferred norms when third parties "broke" them. These results suggest that children do not just passively acquire social norms from adult behavior and instruction; rather, they have a natural and proactive tendency to go from "is" to "ought." That is, children go from observed actions to prescribed actions and do not perceive them simply as guidelines for their own behavior but rather as objective normative rules applying to everyone equally.
2015
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(2015): Gender, trust and cooperation in environmental social dilemmas. In: Social science research 50, S. 328-342. DOI: 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2014.09.002
DOI: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25592940 Abstract: This research addresses gender differences in environmental protection efforts. Recent work indicates that, across a variety of domains, women are more generous, charitable, and prosocial than men. Despite above-average levels of these motivators for cooperation, considerable experimental research points to no difference in cooperation between genders. What can explain women's lower-than-expected cooperation levels? Prior research indicates that, compared to men, women are less trusting and respond to fear incentives in social dilemmas - they are concerned about being exploited. We test these arguments in the context of environmental behaviors and argue that lower trust and greater responses to fear incentives mean that women's cooperation is predicated on trust. For men, trust does not predict environmental cooperation. The current research represents the first empirical test of these arguments. Using data from the General Social Survey we focus on private sphere behaviors and political participation and predict an interaction between gender and trust on cooperation. Results support this prediction. zitiert von 12
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(2015): Evolutionary dynamics of group fairness. In: Journal of theoretical biology 378, S. 96-102. DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2015.04.025
DOI: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25936348 Abstract: The emergence and impact of fairness is commonly studied in the context of 2-person games, notably the Ultimatum Game. Often, however, humans face problems of collective action involving more than two individuals where fairness is known to play a very important role, and whose dynamics cannot be inferred from what is known from 2-person games. Here, we propose a generalization of the Ultimatum Game for an arbitrary number of players--the Multiplayer Ultimatum Game. Proposals are made to a group of responders who must individually reject or accept the proposal. If the total number of individual acceptances stands below a given threshold, the offer will be rejected; otherwise, the offer will be accepted, and equally shared by all responders. We investigate the evolution of fairness in populations of individuals by means of evolutionary game theory, providing both analytical insights and results from numerical simulations. We show how imposing stringent consensuses significantly increases the value of the proposals, leading to fairer outcomes and more tolerant players. Furthermore, we show how stochastic effects--such as imitation errors and/or errors when assessing the fitness of others--may further enhance the overall success in reaching fair collective action.
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(2015): From honeybees to robots and back. Division of labour based on partitioning social inhibition. In: Bioinspiration & biomimetics 10 (6). DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/10/6/066005
DOI: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26501169 Abstract: In this paper, a distributed adaptive partitioning algorithm inspired by division of labor in honeybees is investigated for its applicability in a swarm of underwater robots in one hand and is qualitatively compared with the behavior of honeybee colonies on the other hand. The algorithm, partitioning social inhibition (PSI), is based on local interactions and uses a simple logic inspired from age-polyethism and task allocation in honeybee colonies. The algorithm is analyzed in simulation and is successfully applied here to partition a swarm of underwater robots into groups demonstrating its adaptivity to changes and applicability in real world systems. In a turn towards the inspiration origins of the algorithm, three honeybee colonies are then studied for age-polyethism behaviors and the results are contrasted with a simulated swarm running the PSI algorithm. Similar effects are detected in both the biological and simulated swarms suggesting biological plausibility of the mechanisms employed by the artificial system.
Keywords: Algorithms, Animal Machine, Animals, Bees/physiology, Behavior, Animal/physiology, Biomimetics/instrumentation/methods, Cooperative Behavior, Equipment Design, Equipment Failure Analysis, Feeding Behavior/physiology, Inhibition (Psychology), interdisziplinär, Partitioning Social Inhibition (PSI), Robotics/instrumentation/methods, Social Behavior 2014
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(2014): Children's norm enforcement in their interactions with peers. In: CHILD DEVELOPMENT 85 (3), S. 1108-1122. DOI: 10.1111/cdev.12178
DOI: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24138135 Abstract: This study investigates how children negotiate social norms with peers. In Study 1, 48 pairs of 3- and 5-year-olds (N = 96) and in Study 2, 48 pairs of 5- and 7-year-olds (N = 96) were presented with sorting tasks with conflicting instructions (one child by color, the other by shape) or identical instructions. Three-year-olds differed from older children: They were less selective for the contexts in which they enforced norms, and they (as well as the older children to a lesser extent) used grammatical constructions objectifying the norms ("It works like this" rather than "You must do it like this"). These results suggested that children's understanding of social norms becomes more flexible during the preschool years.
2013
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(2013): Being and feeling in sync with an adaptive virtual partner. Brain mechanisms underlying dynamic cooperativity. In: Cerebral cortex (New York, N.Y. : 1991) 23 (11), S. 2592-2600. DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhs243
DOI: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22892422 Abstract: Cooperation is intrinsic to the human ability to work together toward common goals, and depends on sensing and reacting to dynamically changing relationships between coacting partners. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and a paradigm in which an adaptive pacing signal simulates a virtual partner, we examined the neural substrates underlying dynamic joint action. A single parameter controlled the degree to which the virtual partner adapted its behavior in relation to participant taps, thus simulating varying degrees of cooperativity. Analyses of fMRI data using objective and subjective measures of synchronization quality found the relative balance of activity in two distinct neural networks to depend on the degree of the virtual partner's adaptivity. At lower degrees of adaptivity, when the virtual partner was easier to synchronize with, cortical midline structures were activated in conjunction with premotor areas, suggesting a link between the action and socio-affective components of cooperation. By contrast, right lateral prefrontal areas associated with central executive control processes were recruited during more cognitively challenging interactions while synchronizing with an overly adaptive virtual partner. Together, the reduced adaptive sensorimotor synchronization paradigm and pattern of results illuminate neural mechanisms that may underlie the socio-emotional consequences of different degrees of entrainment success.
Keywords: Acoustic Stimulation, adaptation, Adult, Anpassung, BRAIN, Brain Mapping, Cooperative Behavior, Emotions, Female, Gehirnfunktion, Humans, Kognitionswissenschaft/Social Sciences/Humanities, Kognitive Skills/Social Cognition, Kooperation, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Photic Stimulation, physiology, Psychological, Sensory Feedback, User-Computer Interface, Young Adult -
(2013): Individual heterogeneity and costly punishment: A volunteer's dilemma. In: Proceedings of the Royal Society B 280 (1759). DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2013.0247
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.0247 Abstract: Social control and the enforcement of social norms glue a society together. It has been shown theoretically and empirically that informal punishment of wrongdoers fosters cooperation in human groups. Most of this research has focused on voluntary and uncoordinated punishment carried out by individual group members. However, as punishment is costly, it is an open question as to why humans engage in the punishment of wrongdoers even in one-time-only encounters. While evolved punitive preferences have been advocated as proximate explanations for such behaviour, the strategic nature of the punishment situation has remained underexplored. It has been suggested to conceive of the punishment situation as a volunteer's dilemma (VOD), where only one individual's action is necessary and sufficient to punish the wrongdoer. Here, we show experimentally that implementing the punishment situation as a VOD sustains cooperation in an environment where punishers and non-punishers coexist. Moreover, we show that punishment-cost heterogeneity allows individuals to tacitly agree on only the strongest group member carrying out the punishment, thereby increasing the effectiveness and efficiency of social norm enforcement. Our results corroborate that costly peer punishment can be explained without assuming punitive preferences and show that centralized sanctioning institutions can emerge from arbitrary individual differences.
2010
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(2010): Culture and cooperation. In: Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences 365 (1553), S. 2651-2661. DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2010.0135
DOI: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20679109 Abstract: Does the cultural background influence the success with which genetically unrelated individuals cooperate in social dilemma situations? In this paper, we provide an answer by analysing the data of Herrmann et al. (2008a), who studied cooperation and punishment in 16 subject pools from six different world cultures (as classified by Inglehart & Baker (2000)). We use analysis of variance to disentangle the importance of cultural background relative to individual heterogeneity and group-level differences in cooperation. We find that culture has a substantial influence on the extent of cooperation, in addition to individual heterogeneity and group-level differences identified by previous research. The significance of this result is that cultural background has a substantial influence on cooperation in otherwise identical environments. This is particularly true in the presence of punishment opportunities.
2005
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(2005): Evolution of indirect reciprocity. In: Nature 437 (7063), S. 1291-1298. DOI: 10.1038/nature04131
DOI: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16251955 Abstract: Natural selection is conventionally assumed to favour the strong and selfish who maximize their own resources at the expense of others. But many biological systems, and especially human societies, are organized around altruistic, cooperative interactions. How can natural selection promote unselfish behaviour? Various mechanisms have been proposed, and a rich analysis of indirect reciprocity has recently emerged: I help you and somebody else helps me. The evolution of cooperation by indirect reciprocity leads to reputation building, morality judgement and complex social interactions with ever-increasing cognitive demands.
Keywords: Altruism, Biological Evolution, Biologie, Cooperative Behavior, Evolutionsbiologie, Genese von Normen, Good manners, Humans, Indirekte Reziprozität, Kooperation, Models, Biological, Morals, Natur & Genese von Normen, Normen, Observablen/Kriterien für sozial angemessenes Verhalten und dessen Bewertung, Reziprozität, Soziale Angemessenheit, Trust, Voraussetzungen für sozial angemessenes Verhalten 2004
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(2004): New frontiers for psychology and education: robotics. In: Psychol Rep 94 (3 Pt 2), S. 1372-1374. DOI: 10.2466/pr0.94.3c.1372-1374
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.94.3c.1372-1374 Abstract: The paper reviews the first attempts to study the educational and psychological usefulness of robotics: (1) the social and cooperative dimensions involved in the robot-building activities; (2) the reasoning strategies implied in building and programming robots; (3) the influences of robotics on mathematical and scientific achievement; (4) the use of robotics in modification of social skills of autistic children.
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(2004): Social norms and human cooperation. In: Trends in cognitive sciences 8 (4), S. 185-190. DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2004.02.007
DOI: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15050515 Abstract: The existence of social norms is one of the big unsolved problems in social cognitive science. Although no other concept is invoked more frequently in the social sciences, we still know little about how social norms are formed, the forces determining their content, and the cognitive and emotional requirements that enable a species to establish and enforce social norms. In recent years, there has been substantial progress, however, on how cooperation norms are enforced. Here we review evidence showing that sanctions are decisive for norm enforcement, and that they are largely driven by non-selfish motives. Moreover, the explicit study of sanctioning behavior provides instruments for measuring social norms and has also led to deeper insights into the proximate and ultimate forces behind human cooperation.
Keywords: Cooperative Behavior, Disziplin, Entwicklungspsychologie, Favoriten, Games, Experimental, Good manners, Humans, Interaktion, Interpersonal Relations, Kooperation, Kooperationsvermögen, Modelle/Theorien, Natur & Genese von Normen, Normen, Observablen/Kriterien für sozial angemessenes Verhalten und dessen Bewertung, Postkasten, Psychologie, Sanktionierung, Social Behavior, Social Environment, Soziale Angemessenheit, Soziale Normen, Sozialkompetenz, Überblick, Voraussetzungen für sozial angemessenes Verhalten -
(2004): Why be nice? Psychological constraints on the evolution of cooperation. In: Trends in cognitive sciences 8 (2), S. 60-65. DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2003.12.003
DOI: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15588809 Abstract: Animals often aid others without gaining any immediate benefits. Although these acts seem to reduce the donor's fitness, they are only apparently altruistic. Donors typically help because they or their kin receive future benefits or avoid costly punishment. Reciprocal altruism--alternating the roles of donor and recipient--has been a well-studied form of cooperation among non-kin because of its intuitive appeal in explaining human cooperation. Despite immense theoretical interest, little empirical evidence substantiates the biological importance of reciprocal altruism in non-human animals. We propose that this is because psychological mechanisms constrain its application in cooperative contexts. In particular, we contend that cognitive limitations such as temporal discounting, numerical discrimination and memory make reciprocity difficult for animals.
Keywords: Altruism, Animals, Biologie, Cooperative Behavior, Evolutionsbiologie, Game Theory, Genese, Good manners, Höflichkeit, Humans, Interaktion, Kooperation, Natur & Genese von Normen, Normen, Observablen/Kriterien für sozial angemessenes Verhalten und dessen Bewertung, Problem Solving, reziproker Altruismus, Reziprozität, Social Behavior, Soziale Angemessenheit, Voraussetzungen für sozial angemessenes Verhalten 2003
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(2003): Monkeys reject unequal pay. In: Nature 425 (6955), S. 297-299. DOI: 10.1038/nature01963
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01963 Abstract: During the evolution of cooperation it may have become critical for individuals to compare their own efforts and pay-offs with those of others. Negative reactions may occur when expectations are violated. One theory proposes that aversion to inequity can explain human cooperation within the bounds of the rational choice model, and may in fact be more inclusive than previous explanations. Although there exists substantial cultural variation in its particulars, this 'sense of fairness' is probably a human universal that has been shown to prevail in a wide variety of circumstances. However, we are not the only cooperative animals, hence inequity aversion may not be uniquely human. Many highly cooperative nonhuman species seem guided by a set of expectations about the outcome of cooperation and the division of resources. Here we demonstrate that a nonhuman primate, the brown capuchin monkey (Cebus apella), responds negatively to unequal reward distribution in exchanges with a human experimenter. Monkeys refused to participate if they witnessed a conspecific obtain a more attractive reward for equal effort, an effect amplified if the partner received such a reward without any effort at all. These reactions support an early evolutionary origin of inequity aversion.
Keywords: Aging, Animals, Cebus/psychology, Choice Behavior, Cooperative Behavior, Female, Male, Reward, Social Justice -
(2003): Respect for group members: Intragroup determinants of collective identification and group-serving behavior. In: Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 29 (2), S. 183-193. DOI: 10.1177/0146167202239043
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167202239043 Abstract: This experiment examined how (disrespectful vs. respectful) treatment and (negative vs. positive) performance evaluation, both received from the same fellow group members, affects collective identification and willingness to engage in group-serving behavior. It was predicted and found that respectful as opposed to disrespectful intragroup treatment increased collective identification and willingness to engage in group-serving behavior in the immediate group situation, irrespective of whether intragroup evaluation was positive or negative. There was also evidence of a mediating role of collective identification. Regression analyses based on the measurement of perceived intragroup treatment and perceived intragroup evaluation as continuous variables corroborated these findings but also pointed to limits of the positive effects of respectful intragroup treatment. Finally, the interrelation of treatment and evaluation by fellow group members as two possible components of intragroup respect are discussed as well as the political dimension of research on intragroup respect.
Keywords: Adult, Altruism, Attitude, Cooperative Behavior, Female, Group Processes, Humans, Male, Social Behavior, Social Identification -
(2003): The group engagement model: Procedural justice, social identity, and cooperative behavior. In: Personality and Social Psychology Review 7 (4), S. 349-361. DOI: 10.1207/S15327957PSPR0704_07
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0704_07 Abstract: The group engagement model expands the insights of the group-value model of procedural justice and the relational model of authority into an explanation for why procedural justice shapes cooperation in groups, organizations, and societies. It hypothesizes that procedures are important because they shape people's social identity within groups, and social identity in turn influences attitudes, values, and behaviors. The model further hypothesizes that resource judgments exercise their influence indirectly by shaping social identity. This social identity mediation hypothesis explains why people focus on procedural justice, and in particular on procedural elements related to the quality of their interpersonal treatment, because those elements carry the most social identity-relevant information. In this article, we review several key insights of the group engagement model, relate these insights to important trends in psychological research on justice, and discuss implications of the model for the future of procedural justice research.
2000
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(2000): Strong reciprocity and human sociality. In: Journal of theoretical biology 206 (2), S. 169-179. DOI: 10.1006/jtbi.2000.2111
DOI: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10966755 Abstract: Human groups maintain a high level of sociality despite a low level of relatedness among group members. This paper reviews the evidence for an empirically identifiable form of prosocial behavior in humans, which we call "strong reciprocity", that may in part explain human sociality. A strong reciprocator is predisposed to cooperate with others and punish non-cooperators, even when this behavior cannot be justified in terms of extended kinship or reciprocal altruism. We present a simple model, stylized but plausible, of the evolutionary emergence of strong reciprocity.
Keywords: Altruism, Biological Evolution, Cooperative Behavior, Evolutionsbiologie, Favoriten, Good manners, Humans, Interaktion, Kooperation, Models, Biological, Observablen/Kriterien für sozial angemessenes Verhalten und dessen Bewertung, Reziprozität, Soziale Angemessenheit, Starke Reziprozität, Strong reciprocity model 1998
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(1998): Evolution of indirect reciprocity by image scoring. In: Nature 393 (6685), S. 573-577. DOI: 10.1038/31225
DOI: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9634232 Abstract: Darwinian evolution has to provide an explanation for cooperative behaviour. Theories of cooperation are based on kin selection (dependent on genetic relatedness), group selection and reciprocal altruism. The idea of reciprocal altruism usually involves direct reciprocity: repeated encounters between the same individuals allow for the return of an altruistic act by the recipient. Here we present a new theoretical framework, which is based on indirect reciprocity and does not require the same two individuals ever to meet again. Individual selection can nevertheless favour cooperative strategies directed towards recipients that have helped others in the past. Cooperation pays because it confers the image of a valuable community member to the cooperating individual. We present computer simulations and analytic models that specify the conditions required for evolutionary stability of indirect reciprocity. We show that the probability of knowing the 'image' of the recipient must exceed the cost-to-benefit ratio of the altruistic act. We propose that the emergence of indirect reciprocity was a decisive step for the evolution of human societies.
Keywords: Altruism, Biological Evolution, Computer Simulation, Cooperative Behavior, Evolutionsbiologie, Good manners, Helping Behavior, Humans, Indirect reciprocity model, Indirekte Reziprozität, Interaktion, Kooperation, Mutation, Reziprozität, Selection, Genetic, Soziale Angemessenheit, Spieltheorie
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